Life cycle environmental impacts of current and future battery-grade lithium supply from brine and spodumene

Life cycle assessment studies of large-scale lithium-ion battery (LIB) production reveal a shift-of-burden to the upstream phase cell production. Thus, it is important understand how environmental impacts differ based on source and grade extracted metals. As lithium highly relevant several current next-generation chemistries, we reviewed effect varying grades in different sources (brine spodumene) worldwide. The review covered Ecoinvent database, scientific literature, technical reports upcoming facilities. results showed that lower-grade brines have higher compared higher-grade brines. However, spodumene-based did not show such trend, due process designs facilities reviewed. Water use are expected increase with decreasing concentration. This could specifically be an issue brine-based production, where brine from already water scarce regions evaporated, thus increasing risk freshwater availability. these aspects addressed existing life impact methods. In context LIB hydroxide routes account for 5–15% climate change impacts.